NURSING EDUCATION IN THE USA

There are currently two ways to be come a professional registered nurse in the USA.

• Associate degree (AS): This is a two-year program offered by universities or junior colleges. This program focuses on the basic sciences, theoretical and clinical aspects of the nursing practice. 
• Baccalaureate degree (BSN): This is a four-year program offered by colleges or universities. In addition to taking the courses offered in the associate degree, they take course in the humanities, art, and social studies to support the nursing practice. 

Both the graduate of the AS or BSN degrees eligible to take the National Council Licensure  Examination for Registered Nurses (NCLEX-RN) in the state in which they intend to practice.  

A person with BSN degree can take his/her education to a higher level. Graduate education can be done at the masters or doctoral levels.

• Master's Education: This level provides advance clinical skills, basic science and research-based skills. The degree offered include, Master of Science in Nursing (MSN), Master of Arts in Nursing (MA in nursing), or Master of Nursing (MN). For those who want to be nurse practitioners, nurse specialist, nurse administrators, or nurse educators, a master's degree is required.
• Doctoral Education: 

1. One of the degrees offered is  DSN or DNSc. This program provides a more advance study in nursing and emphasizes the application of research findings to the clinical setting.
2. The other degree is Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in nursing: This program emphasizes more on research and theory. 

With the advancement in technology and health informatics, more people with doctoral degrees are needed. They are also needed to educate nursing students in the undergraduate and advanced levels.

TYPES OF RADIATIONS

Elements are made up of atoms. An atom has a nucleus as we have seen previously. Some elements have atoms that are so big that they are very unstable so they undergo decay, that is they disintegrate. There are basically, three types of radiations, namely:

• Alpha radiation
• Beta radiation
• Gamma radiation

1. What is an Alpha Radiation?
   Alpha radiation is a stream of positively charged particles, called alpha particles. It has an atomic mass of 4 and a charge of +2. It is, therefore a helium nucleus (42He ). The superscript is the atomic mass and the subscript is the atomic number. When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, the mass number of the nucleus decreases by four units and the atomic number decreases by two units. For example: When uranium (3892U) emits an alpha radiation, it produces the element Thorium (23490Th). 
   23892U → 42He + 23490Th
2. What is a Beta Radiation?
   Beta radiation is a stream of electrons, called beta particles. Beta particle emission occurs when the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus is too high. In this case, an excess neutron transforms into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus and the electron is ejected energetically. This process decreases the number of neutrons by one and increases the number of protons by one. Since the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the element, the conversion of a neutron to a proton actually changes the radionuclide to a different element. For example, when Thorium emits a beta particle, it forms the element, Palladium (23491Pa).
   23490 Th→  + 23491Pa
   As you can see, the mass of the nucleus is unchanged, but the atomic number has increased by one unit. 
3. What is a Gamma Radiation? Gamma rays are high-energy photons with a very short wavelength (0.0005 to 0.1 nm). When an energy change occurs within the atomic nucleus, a gamma radiation occurs. Neither the atomic number or mass changes when Gamma emission occurs. Alpha and beta emission are often accompanied by gamma emission, as an excited nucleus drops to a lower and more stable energy state. For example, Cesium-137 undergoes radioactive decay by gamma radiation, a neutron transforms to a proton and a beta particle. The additional proton changes the atom to barium-137. The nucleus ejects the beta particle, however, the nucleus still has too much energy and ejects a gamma photon (gamma radiation) to become more stable.
4. Positron is a particle with the same mass as an electron, but a charge of +1 instead of -1. This emission isn't observed in natural radioactivity, but it is a common mode of decay in induced radioactivity. Induced radioactivity is done in the chemical lab using bombardment reactions to produce very heavy elements, including many which don't occur in nature.

UNLEASH YOUR CREATIVITY

Today is a day to relax your brains by unleashing your creativity. What can you do with empty plastic bottles? Check out this video.

HAPPY 

MARTIN LUTHER KING'S

 DAY

REVIEW CLASSES FORMING SOON

If you are preparing to take any Nursing Entrance Exam 

and you need a personal tutor, 

you can contact me via this blog's contact form.

Classes are forming soon in the USA especially: 

The Tri-state Area (New Jersey, New York, Connecticut) and Philadelphia. 

We can also tutor any person living outside these areas by using our phone conference system.

All interested persons should fill the contact form to reach us.

MATH AND ENGLISH REVIEW PAGES

Below, you will find links  to other pages on this blog with information on the English and math sessions of the test. You can check these out. I will keep updating and adding more info. I hope you are all benefiting from this blog.

VOCABULARY REVIEW-5

VOCABULARY SENTENCES

VOCABULARY REVIEW - 4

MATH REVIEW TOPICS

VOCABULARY PRACTICE-3

VOCABULARY PRACTICE TEST-2

PRACTICE SPELLCHECK

VOCABULARY PRACTICE TEST-1

ENGLISH REVIEW

SCIENCE REVIEW-Overview

MILESTONES IN NURSING EDUCATION

Here are some good slides on the milestones in nursing education.

1. Milestones in nursing education

2. History and theories

3. Comprehensive history of nursing

4. New Careers in Nursing: Historical Perspective

5. History of nurse's uniform

THE PROCESS OF MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the gonads or sex organs.

• At the end of meiosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced by half. That is, meiosis of diploid cells produces haploid daughter cells.
• These cells can then function as gametes that can undergo fertilization resulting in the restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote.
• Meiosis and fertilization introduce genetic variation in three ways:

The meiosis consist of two main stages:

•  Meiosis I: This is made up of four sub-stages: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I
•  Meiosis II: This is made up of four sub-stages: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II

You can click on this link to view a diagram on the meitotic process. This will help you to visualize the steps described below.

MEIOSIS I

Prophase I  The chromosomes condense and become visible. The centrioles form and move toward the poles. The nuclear membrane begins to dissolve. The homologs pair up, forming a tetrad.  Each tetrad is comprised of four chromotids - the two homologs, each with their sister chromatid. Genetic material from the homologous chromosomes is randomly swapped. This process is known as crossing over.  Crossing over increases genetic diversity by creating four unique chromatids.

Metaphase I Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres The tetrads line up along the cell equator.

Anaphase I The centromeres break and homologous chromosomes separate with the sister chromatids are still attached. Cytokinesis begins.

Telophase I The chromosomes may decondense. Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two haploid daughter cells

MEIOSIS II 

Prophase II Centrioles form and move toward the poles. The nuclear membrane dissolves.

Metaphase II Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres. The sister chromatids line up along the cell equator.

Anaphase II The centromeres break and sister chromatids separate.  Cytokinesis begins.

Telophase II The chromosomes may decondense. Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating four haploid daughter cells.

THE PROCESS OF MITOSIS

The stages of the cell cycle can be broken down into five stages:

• Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

Interphase  This is the resting phase of the cell cycle.  It is consist of G1, S, and G2 stages of the cell cycle.  During the S phase of Interphase, DNA is replicated.

Prophase  This is the first stage of mitosis. The chromosomes condense and become visible. The centrioles form and move toward the opposite ends of the cell called "the poles". The nuclear membrane dissolves. The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in animal cells). Spindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the kinetochore.

Metaphase This is the second stage of mitosis. The centrioles complete their migration to the poles. The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell referred "the equator".

Anaphase This is the third stage of mitosis. Spindles attached to kinetochores begin to shorten. This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart. Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles. This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes

Telophase This is the fourth stage of mitosis. The chromosomes decondense. The nuclear envelope forms. Cytokinesis reaches completion and two daughter cells are created.

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